Hunter's Danforth Chapel at CSU

James Hunter, the architect of the George Löf house (discussed in the book and here) and coordinator to the 1957 “Living With the Sun” competition (discussed in the book) was a fine mid-century modern architect in general, apart from his importance to the solar house movement.

Recently I was in Fort Collins, at Colorado State University, where Hunter designed the Danforth Chapel (1954). I took some photos.

In image #4, note the exterior lights, to back-light the stained glass at night.

More:
2011 CSU article

A Hassan Fathy Quotation

Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy was born on this day in 1900. Anyone interested in the history of green building should be aware of his significance. (Here’s a page which provides a nice introduction.)

This is a favorite quotation:

“Any architect who makes a solar furnace of his building and compensates for this by installing a huge cooling machine is approaching the problem inappropriately and we can measure the inappropriateness of his attempted solution by the excess number of kilocalories he uselessly introduces into the building.”

—from Natural Energy and Vernacular Architecture (1986)

That book is a major resource on traditional methods of natural cooling in the Middle East. If you want to learn about courtyards, the mashrabiya, the malqaf, and other features, Fathy's book is the place to begin.

I was once told that Fathy was the first person to use the word 'sustainability' in the context of architecture, in the 1930s. I’m still trying to track that down.

Also, a Hassan Fathy oral history recording is available to listen here.

User Behavior

There are several sublimated themes in the history of the solar house that apply to the practice of architecture and green building today.  The first and most important, which I sought to bring to the foreground in The Solar House, is the 'schism' between architecture and engineering.  (Credit, of course, to Sigfried Giedion, who first appropriated that powerful term from religious history.)  The answer to the schism---integrated practice---is a central theme of our time and, in my opinion, essential to the path forward.

Another major issue which surfaces from time to time in the book, and applies to green builders working now, is User Behavior.  The point is this: an efficient structure, by itself, will not guarantee low energy use; the users’ behavior matters considerably.  The most successful energy-saving buildings are invariably a product of both technology and culture.  

How about Hugh Duncan?  He was one of the first important patrons of the solar house (and a rhetorical champion of the concept).  In 1941 he hired Fred Keck to design a house in the Chicago suburb of Flossmoor, which then became the site of scientific study.  Keck and the Libbey-Owens-Ford glass company wanted to quantify how much energy would be saved by Keck's passive solar heating techniques.  Engineers from the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) were engaged to instrument the Duncan house and analyze the data.  The experiment was inconclusive, however, in part because Duncan insisted on setting the thermostat at 73˚F and then left the door open---in winter!  The researchers understood they had bad data, and Keck was left supremely frustrated.  (A bit more on the Duncan House here: Keck's Duncan house: a new look)

And User Behavior can mislead historians.  Take Frank Lloyd Wright's "solar hemicycle" for Herbert Jacobs and his family (Madison, 1944).  Wright's structure was brilliant for its poetic expression of the solar path, and properly designed in cross-section, but it had serious thermal problems.  As I explain in the book, the house was essentially uninsulated, and required a tremendous amount of heating in addition to the passive solar gains.  The mezzanine-level bedrooms were essentially unheated, and the family would dress together each morning in the large bathroom, which contained a radiator.  The fascinating aspect of User Behavior, in this case, was that the Jacobses were so tolerant of discomfort.  Despite the fact that their dwelling had major flaws, they became solar house advocates and (perhaps unwittingly) helped hide those flaws from the historical record.

Today, User Behavior beguiles architects and engineers, most notably in the form of plug loads.  (The term 'plug loads' describes the energy use in a building as a result of equipment that is plugged-in, not really part of the permanent architecture and not controlled by the building design.  Plug loads account for roughly 25% of total electricity consumed within office buildings, according to the GSA.)  In Sustainable Construction: Green Building Design and Delivery, Charles Kibert says the modeling of plug loads is "inaccurate because the behavior of the building users is unpredictable."  Space-heaters and fans are notorious offenders because the building's permanent equipment is supposed to be designed to keep people comfortable.

How profound is User Behavior?  A 2012 study found that, in office spaces, "austere" occupants can achieve 50% energy savings compared to "regular" occupants, and "wasteful" occupants may use up to 89% more energy than regular (Hong & Lin, "Occupant Behavior: Impact on Energy Use of Private Offices," 2012).

New York City's Bank of America Tower, completed in 2010, is now the canonical example of User Behavior undermining good design.  The building, which has several commendable green features, became the subject of scandal due to exorbitant electricity use.  (The scandalizing article is here.)  It turned out not to be a scandal at all---the tenants have extremely high computer use and enormous server farms; it's almost more akin to a data center than an office building.  You can't blame the building designers for that, although it would have been better if they could have anticipated the demand.

Fred Keck's unfinished book

In The Solar House I call George Fred Keck “The First Solar Architect,” and I argue that his work is “generally overlooked; his place in history does not seem to match his true importance.” He might have built a more secure legacy if he had written more.

In a footnote to Chapter 2, I mentioned that Keck wrote a book manuscript in 1944, which was never published. This is news, I think. I don't recall Keck's book having been mentioned in anything that has been written about him, including the monograph Keck & Keck by Robert Boyce. (Too little has been written about him!)

So I was surprised when I found that Keck planned a book, and produced an incomplete draft. Several chapters are in his papers at the Wisconsin Historical Society. He thought it would be a “high class how to book.” Here is the list of chapters he outlined in a 1944 letter to Ken Reid, the editor of Pencil Points magazine:

1. General Information and Introduction
2. Fitting the House to the Climate
3. Orientation and Solar Principles Applications
4. The Use of Glass and Its Possibilities
5. Heating of the House
6. Structural Changes and Inventions
7. A Discussion in the Use of Materials, Both Old and New
8. Artificial Lighting
9. Possibilities of Manufactured Housing or Prefabrication
10. A Discussion about Obsolete Ideas and Tendencies in Planning which might be broken down into a discussion of Basements, Attics, and Multiple Story Houses.
11. A Discussion of Physical Safety and Well-being in the Contemporary House broken down into such items as Accidents, Eye Sight and such problems.
12. Furniture and Its Possibilities
13. Discussion of Aesthetics
     a. Stylism
     b. Rationalism
14. Sociological, Psychological or Human Relationship Problems in Planning
15. A Discussion on Planning - Neighborhood Planning and Regional Planning - and How an Individual Family Unit Fits Into Such a Scheme

Keck completed drafts of most of these, although it is not clear the full work was ever finished because the archive is a bit disorganized. He never followed through or found a publisher.

The topic list is immensely interesting, of course. It reflects both Keck's own creative agenda and the general priorities of modern architecture in the 40s. (For instance, I’m certain that if Gregory Ain had made such a list it would have been quite similar, except for the emphasis on heating and solar heating.)

The overall character of the manuscript was straightforward, but a bit timid or meek in tone. I’m afraid it might have been a somewhat dull book; it was certainly not a ‘manifesto’ in the modernist tradition. A good editor might have helped immensely. Had it been finished and published, it would have clearly broadcast Keck’s specific insights, which were significant, and he surely would have secured greater level of historical importance for himself.

Wolfgang Langewiesche and Climate Control

A fascinating 'supporting character' in the history of climate-responsive architecture in the Midcentury period is Wolfgang Langewiesche.

Langewiesche wrote for House Beautiful, working with editor Elizabeth Gordon.  He was a key contributor to the Climate Control Project that the magazine created in concert with the AIA, a seminal effort to educate architects about heating & cooling, and other environmental issues.*  As I wrote in the book: "No publication in America or elsewhere gave more positive attention to the solar house."

I've created the following Bibliography of articles written by Langewiesche for House Beautiful.  It's an impressive list.

"So You Think You're Comfortable" (October 1949)
"How to Fix your Private Climate" (October 1949)
"How to Pick your Private Climate" (November 1949)
"Don't You See?" (December 1949)
"Your House in Florida" (January 1950)
"Why You Feel Hot or Cold" (February 1950)
"How to Control the Sun" (March 1950)
"How to Live Comfortably in the Southwest Desert" (April 1950)
"Wind Control in Hot Weather" (June 1950)
“Can you Control the Wind?” (June 1950)
"How to Get Wind Control" (June 1950)
"How to Manipulate Sun and Shade" (July 1950)
"There's a Gold Mine under Your House" (August 1950)
"Why Does Insulation Insulate?" (September 1950)
"A Quickie Course in Climate Control" (November 1950)
"Different Places Need Different Houses" (January 1951)
"Your House in the Fall" (October 1951)
"The Next American House by a Man who’s Going to Build One" (April 1953)
"The Pace Setter Heat Pump" (February 1955)
"Summer Heat is Man-made" (June 1955)
"The Builder House: What Kind of House Is it?" (November 1956)
"Everybody Can Own a House" (November 1956)

I'm not sure this is full and complete.  Please comment if I'm missing any!

Langewiesche is more noted as an aviation writer.  His book Stick and Rudder: An Explanation of the Art of Flying (1944), is considered a classic and is still in print.

---

Other articles of significance from House Beautiful (not by Langewiesche):

By Elizabeth Gordon:
    "Did You Know that the Heat of the Sun Can Help Heat your House in Winter?" (September 1943)
    "Summer Protector against Solar Heat is the Roof Overhang" (September 1943)
    "The First of the Postwar Prefabricated Houses" on Green's solar homes by Keck (November 1945)
    "What Climate Does to YOU and What You Can Do to CLIMATE" (October 1949)
    "Report on the Climate Control Project" (October 1950)
By James Marston Fitch:
    "How You Can Use House Beautiful's Climate Control Project" (October 1949)
    "The Scientists Behind Climate Control" (October 1949)
By others:
    "What a Big Difference a Little Re-Orienting Makes" (September 1943)
    "Facts I Wager You Don’t Know About Solar Mechanics" (September 1943)
    "Can an Old House be Remodeled for Solar Heating?" (June 1945)
    Jedd S. Reimer, "You Can So Have a Solar House in a Cold Climate" (June 1948)
    W.W. Ward, "Keep the Sun Off Your Windows and You’ll Be Up to 20% Cooler" (June 1948)
    Henry N. Wright, "How to Put a Harness on the Sun" (October 1949)
    Miles Colean, "Climate Control Can Save You Money" (October 1949)
    "Climate Control Goes to the National Academy" (January 1950)

*For more on the Climate Control Project, here's an excellent site created sometime ago by MIT.